Investment in human capital plays a decisive role in economic growth. India, which seeks to become the engine of global economic growth and swears by inclusive growth, however, shows shocking trends in rural-urban educational inequality.
This is evident from both the Social Consumption of Education Survey 2017-18 and the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) of 2023 – both conducted by the Government of India. This article is based on data from these surveys. All analyses of Gini index and literacy rate are calculated by using the unit level data.
If the investment in human capital is unequally distributed, there is no way that India can ensure a reduction in overall inequality.
The period from 1986 to 2017 saw significant shifts in policy interventions in the Indian educational system. These reflected a broader change in the socio-economic landscape.
This change was characterized by the reform measures taken by the government since 1991, which influenced the direction of educational policies.The improvement in the overall literacy rate is a noteworthy feature of India’s development policy. India's literacy rate has seen significant improvement since independence, rising from 18.3 percent in 1951 to 72.98 percent in 2011.
This progress reflects sustained policy efforts in education, including initiatives like the National Literacy Mission 1988 and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan 2001, which expanded access to primary education and improved adult literacy. However, disparities based on gender, region, and socio-economic status persist.
A disaggregated picture reveals several deficiencies in the system.
The decline in illiteracy indicates that a larger proportion of the people has acquired basic education which is fundamental for further capacity development initiatives. The increase in literacy rate may be due to government interventions in the form of the National Education Policy 1986 and the Right to Education Act 2009 which aimed to make education accessible and compulsory for all children.
The National Education Policy 2020 is yet another initiative by the Indian government to make education more accessible, which may further reduce inequality.
The rural-urban disparity is severe in India and one of the reasons for it is high educational inequality. According to the Periodic Labor Force Survey 2023, 26.3 percent of the Indian population remained illiterate. However, the data also reveal a concerning trend showing that the proportion of people below primary school level has declined from 12.5 percent in 2016 to 11.5 percent. This decline is largely due to a significant drop in urban areas.
The rural-urban disparity remains critical for attaining equitable outcomes across the entire population. This underscores the urgent need for further investment in rural education.
The education Gini index (a measure of inequality) at the national level was 72.4 percent in 1986 and reached 46.6 percent in 2023.
However, the extent of educational inequality is still high in India.
Although the overall educational inequality has decreased in all states, the trend in some states is a cause for concern.
For example, in 1986, Kerala had the lowest level of inequality at 40 percent, followed by Delhi and Goa at 49 percent and 50 percent, respectively.
On the other hand, states like Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir reported the highest levels of educational inequality in 1986.
In 2023, six states – Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh – reported the highest levels of inequality, of more than 50 percent.
This requires focused attention and an exploration of why certain states are lagging behind others. In 2023, states like Goa (26 percent), Chandigarh (26 percent), Kerala (28 percent), and Delhi (31 percent) substantially reduced inequality. In the case of Chandigarh, more than a 50 percent reduction can be seen during the last 32 years.
The impact of income on education is also evident, as it affects the access to quality education. The unequal distribution of education may also lead to unequal outcomes for different social groups.
Family income also plays a key role in accessing education. This means that parents with higher incomes can spend more on education than their lower-income counterparts.
Similarly, among parents working as casual laborers in both rural and urban areas, the level of educational inequality has been higher over time than among parents working as regular wage earners.
The Higher Education Survey 2020 highlights that about 43 percent universities and 61.4 percent colleges are in rural India. However, the rural-urban differences in education inequality have not come down significantly even with the presence of a large number of educational institutions in our country.
Access to education plays a key role in reducing inequality. About 91 percent of Indians have access to primary education within one kilometer. However, this trend changes when one goes to upper primary and secondary education as only 72 percent and 48 percent respectively have access to school within one kilometer radius.
A good proportion of students belonging to Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Scheduled Castes (SCs) travel more than 5 km to attend secondary school in India. There is also a wide disparity in educational attainment especially between STs, SCs and other categories. In 2017, the mean years of education was 4.3 and 4.8 years respectively for ST and SC students compared to 5.4 and 6.7 years for those in the Other Backward Classes (OBC) and General categories.
The availability of educational infrastructure is highly uneven between SC/ST households and other social groups. This indicates the need for more focused efforts to reduce the gap in an orderly manner. There is a clear need for policy interventions to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals of quality education and reduction of inequality.
The unequal access to education and income also has an impact on the selection of disciplines that students choose. Other than the foundational disciplines such as Humanities, Science, and Commerce, the probability of choosing professional disciplines like Medicine, Engineering, Law, Management, etc. is comparatively higher among students coming from higher-income categories.
There is, therefore, significant disparity in the professional course selection among students from different social groups.
In sum, despite decades of educational progress in India, the affluent continue to benefit disproportionately from pursuing academic excellence. Despite increased educational spending, India has not been able to address the significant disadvantages the underprivileged sections face.
Professional education is heavily influenced by a family's financial background and social status, creating barriers that only the wealthier sections of society can overcome. The quality of school education, particularly the schooling background, significantly impacts enrolment in professional courses and is a major obstacle for those unable to access quality schools.
Similarly, proficiency in the English language is essential for succeeding in professional courses. However, in India, most English-medium schools operate in the private sector where fees are beyond the means of lower-income households. Limited access to English-medium schools for the poor further deepens educational inequality in India.
(The author is Assistant Professor at Christ Deemed to be University), Bengaluru, India. This article was originally published under Creative Commons by 360info)
